The ABC's of Borrowing
Summary
Some small business persons cannot understand why a lending institution
refused to lend them money. Others have no trouble getting funds, but they are
surprised to find strings attached to their loans. Such owner-managers fail to
realize that banks and other lenders have to operate by certain principles just
like other types of businesses do.
This article discusses the following fundamentals of borrowing: (1) credit worthiness, (2) kinds of loans, (3) amount of money needed, (4) collateral, (5) loan restrictions and limitations, (6) the loan application, and (7) standards which the lender uses to evaluate the application.
Introduction
Inexperience with borrowing procedures often creates resentment and bitterness. The stories of three small business persons illustrate this point.
"I'll never trade here again," Bill Smith said when his bank refused to grant him a loan. "I'd like to let you have it, Bill," the banker said, "but your firm isn't earning enough to meet your current obligations." Mr. Smith was unaware of a vital financial fact, namely, that lending institutions have to be certain that the borrower's business can repay the loan.
Tom Jones lost his temper when the bank refused him a loan because he did not know what kind or how much money he needed. "We hesitate to lend," the banker said, "to business owners with such vague ideas of what and how much they need."
John Williams' case was somewhat different. He didn't explode until after he got the loan. When the papers were ready to sign, he realized that the loan agreement put certain limitations on his business activities. "You can't dictate to me," he said and walked out of the bank. What he didn't realize was that the limitations were for his good as well as for the bank's protection.
Knowledge of the financial facts of business life could have saved all three the embarrassment of losing their tempers. Even more important, such information would have helped them to borrow money at a time when their businesses needed it badly.
This Aid is designed to give the highlights of what is involved in sound business borrowing. It should be helpful to those who have little or no experience with borrowing. More experienced owner-managers should find it useful in re-evaluating their borrowing operations.
Is Your Firm Credit Worthy?
The ability to obtain money when you need it is as necessary to the operation of your business as is a good location or the right equipment, reliable sources of supplies and materials, or an adequate labor force.
Before a bank or any other lending agency will lend you money, the loan officer must feel satisfied with the answers to the five following questions:
1. What sort of person are you, the prospective borrower? By all odds, the character of the borrower comes first. Next is your ability to manage your business.
2. What are you going to do with the money? The answer to this question will determine the type of loan, short or long-term. Money to be used for the purchase of seasonal inventory will require quicker repayment than money used to buy fixed assets.
3. When and how do you plan to pay it back? Your banker's judgment of your business ability and the type of loan will be a deciding factor in the answer to this question.
4. Is the cushion in the loan large enough? In other words, does the amount requested make suitable allowance for unexpected developments? The banker decides this question on the basis of your financial statement which sets forth the condition of your business and on the collateral pledged.
5. What is the outlook for business in general and for your business particularly?
Adequate Financial Data is a "Must."
The banker wants to make loans to businesses which are solvent, profitable, and growing. The two basic financial statements used to determine those conditions are the balance sheet and profit-and-loss statement. The former is the major yardstick for solvency and the latter for profits. A continuous series of these two statements over a period of time is the principal device for measuring financial stability and growth potential.
In interviewing loan applicants and in studying their records, the banker is especially interested in the following facts and figures.
General Information: Are the books and records up-to-date and in good condition? What is the condition of accounts payable? Of notes payable?
What are the salaries of the owner-manager and other company officers? Are all taxes being paid currently? What is the order backlog? What is the number of employees? What is the insurance coverage?
Accounts Receivable: Are there indications that some of the accounts receivable have already been pledged to another creditor? What is the accounts receivable turnover? Is the accounts receivable total weakened because many customers are far behind in their payments? Has a large enough reserve been set up to cover doubtful accounts? How much do the largest accounts owe and what percentage of your total accounts does this amount represent?
Inventories: Is merchandise in good shape or will it have to be marked down? How much raw material is on hand? How much work is in process? How much of the inventory is finished goods?
Is there any obsolete inventory? Has an excessive amount of inventory been consigned to customers? Is inventory turnover in line with the turnover for other businesses in the same industry? Or is money being tied up too long in inventory?
Fixed Assets: What is the type, age, and condition of the equipment? What are the depreciation policies? What are the details of mortgages or conditional sales contracts? What are the future acquisition plans?
What Kind of Money?
When you set out to borrow money for your firm, it is important to know the kind of money you need from a bank or other lending institution. There are three kinds of money: short term, term money, and equity capital.
Keep in mind that the purpose for which the funds are to be used is an important factor in deciding the kind of money needed. But even so, deciding what kind of money to use is not always easy. It is sometimes complicated by the fact that you may be using some of the various kinds of money at the same time and for identical purposes.
Keep in mind that a very important distinction between the types of money is the source of repayment. Generally, short-term loans are repaid from the liquidation of current assets which they have financed. Long-term loans are usually repaid from earnings.
Short-Term Bank Loans
You can use short-term bank loans for purposes such as financing accounts receivable for, say 30 to 60 days. Or you can use them for purposes that take longer to pay off--such as for building a seasonal inventory over a period of 5 to 6 months. Usually, lenders expect short-term loans to be repaid after their purposes have been served: for example, accounts receivable loans, when the outstanding accounts have been paid by the borrower's customers, and inventory loans, when the inventory has been converted into saleable merchandise.
Banks grant such money either on your general credit reputation with an unsecured loan or on a secured loan.
The unsecured loan is the most frequently used form of bank credit for short-term purposes. You do not have to put up collateral because the bank relies on your credit reputation.
The secured loan involves a pledge of some or all of your assets. The bank requires security as a protection for its depositors against the risks that are involved even in business situations where the chances of success are good.
Term Borrowing
Term borrowing provides money you plan to pay back over a fairly long time. Some people break it down into two forms: (1) intermediate--loans longer than 1 year but less than 5 years, and (2) long-term--loans for more than 5 years.
However, for your purpose of matching the kind of money to the needs of your company, think of term borrowing as a kind of money which you probably will pay back in periodic installments from earnings.
Equity Capital
Some people confuse term borrowing and equity (or investment) capital. Yet there is a big difference. You don't have to repay equity money. It is money you get by selling a part interest in your business.
You take people into your company who are willing to risk their money in it. They are interested in potential income rather than in an immediate return on their investment.
How Much Money?
The amount of money you need to borrow depends on the purpose for which you need funds. Figuring the amount of money required for business construction, conversion, or expansion--term loans or equity capital--is relatively easy. Equipment manufacturers, architects, and builders will readily supply you with cost estimates. On the other hand, the amount of working capital you need depends upon the type of business you're in. While rule-of- thumb ratios may be helpful as a starting point, a detailed projection of sources and uses of funds over some future period of time-- usually for 12 months--is a better approach. In this way, the characteristics of the particular situation can be taken into account. Such a projection is developed through the combination of a predicted budget and a cash forecast.
The budget is based on recent operating experience plus your best judgment of performance during the coming period. The cash forecast is your estimates of cash receipts and disbursements during the budget period. Thus, the budget and the cash forecast together represent your plan for meeting your working capital requirements.
To plan your working capital requirements, it is important to know the "cash flow" which your business will generate. This involves simply a consideration of all elements of cash receipts and disbursements at the time they occur. These elements are listed in the profit-and-loss statement which has been adapted to show cash flow. They should be projected for each month.
What Kind of Collateral?
Sometimes, your signature is the only security the bank needs when making a loan. At other times, the bank requires additional assurance that the money will be repaid. The kind and amount of security depends on the bank and on the borrower's situation.
If the loan required cannot be justified by the borrower's financial statements alone, a pledge of security may bridge the gap. The types of security are: endorsers, comaker, and guarantors; assignment of leases; trust receipts and floor planning; chattel mortgages; real estate; accounts receivables; savings accounts; life insurance policies; and stocks and bonds. In a substantial number of States where the Uniform Commercial Code has been enacted, paperwork for recording loan transactions will be greatly simplified.
Endorsers, Co-makers, and Guarantors
Borrowers often get other people to sign a note in order to bolster their own credit. These endorsers are contingently liable for the note they sign. If the borrower fails to pay up, the bank expects the endorser to make the note good. Sometimes, the endorser may be asked to pledge assets or securities too.
A co-maker is one who creates an obligation jointly with the borrower. In such cases, the bank can collect directly from either the maker or the co-maker.
A guarantor is one who guarantees the payment of a note by signing a guaranty commitment. Both private and government lenders often require guarantees from officers of corporations in order to assure continuity of effective management. Sometimes, a manufacturer will act as guarantor for customers.
Assignment of Leases
The assigned lease as security is similar to the guarantee. It is used, for example, in some franchise situations.
The bank lends the money on a building and takes a mortgage. Then the lease, which the dealer and the parent franchise company work out, is assigned so that the bank automatically receives the rent payments. In this manner, the bank is guaranteed repayment of the loan.
Warehouse Receipts
Banks also take commodities as security by lending money on a warehouse receipt. Such a receipt is usually delivered directly to the bank and shows that the merchandise used as security either has been placed in a public warehouse or has been left on your premises under the control of one of your employees who is bonded (as in field warehousing). Such loans are generally made on staple or standard merchandise which can be readily marketed. The typical warehouse receipt loan is for a percentage of the estimated value of the goods used as security.
Trust Receipts and Floor Planning
Merchandise, such as automobiles, appliances, and boats, has to be displayed to be sold. The only way many small marketers can afford such displays is by borrowing money. Such loans are often secured by a note and a trust receipt.
This trust receipt is the legal paper for floor planning. It is used for serial-numbered merchandise. When you sign one, you (1) acknowledge receipt of the merchandise, (2) agree to keep the merchandise in trust for the bank, and (3) promise to pay the bank as you sell the goods.
Chattel Mortgages
If you buy equipment such as a cash register or a delivery truck, you may want to get a chattel mortgage loan. You give the bank a lien on the equipment you are buying.
The bank also evaluates the present and future market value of the equipment being used to secure the loan. How rapidly will it depreciate? Does the borrower have the necessary fire, theft, property damage, and public liability insurance on the equipment? The banker has to be sure that the borrower protects the equipment.
Real Estate
Real estate is another form of collateral for long-term loans. When taking a real estate mortgage, the bank finds out: (1) the location of the real estate, (2) its physical condition, (3) its foreclosure value, and (4) the amount of insurance carried on the property.
Accounts Receivable
Many banks lend money on accounts receivable. In effect, you are counting on your customers to pay your note.
The bank may take accounts receivable on a notification or a non-notification plan. Under the notification plan, the purchaser of the goods is informed by the bank that his or her account has been assigned to it and he or she is asked to pay the bank. Under the non-notification plan, the borrower's customers continue to pay you the sums due on their accounts and you pay the bank.
Savings Accounts
Sometimes, you might get a loan by assigning to the bank a savings account. In such cases, the bank gets an assignment from you and keeps your passbook. If you assign an account in another bank as collateral, the lending bank asks the other bank to mark its records to show that the account is held as collateral.
Life Insurance
Another kind of collateral is life insurance. Banks will lend up to the cash value of a life insurance policy. You have to assign the policy to the bank.
If the policy is on the life of an executive of a small corporation, corporate resolutions must be made authorizing the assignment. Most insurance companies allow you to sign the policy back to the original beneficiary when the assignment to the bank ends.
Some people like to use life insurance as collateral rather than borrow directly from insurance companies. One reason is that a bank loan is often more convenient to obtain and usually may be obtained at a lower interest rate.
Stocks and Bonds
If you use stocks and bonds as collateral, they must be marketable. As a protection against market declines and possible expenses of liquidation, banks usually lend no more than 75 percent of the market value of high grade stock. On Federal Government or municipal bonds, they may be willing to lend 90 percent or more of their market value.
The bank may ask the borrower for additional security or payment whenever the market value of the stocks or bonds drops below the bank's required margin.
What Are the Lender's Rules?
Lending institutions are not just interested in loan repayments. They are also interested in borrowers with healthy profit-making businesses. Therefore, whether or not collateral is required for a loan, they set loan limitations and restrictions to protect themselves against unnecessary risk and at the same time against poor management practices by their borrowers. Often some owner/ managers consider loan limitations a burden.
Yet others feel that such limitations also offer an opportunity for improving their management techniques.
Especially in making long-term loans, the borrower as well as the lender should be thinking of: (1) the net earning power of the borrowing company, (2) the capability of its management, (3) the long range prospects of the company, and (4) the long range prospects of the industry of which the company is a part. Such factors often mean that limitations increase as the duration of the loan increases.
What Kinds of Limitations?
The kinds of limitations, which an owner-manager finds set upon the company depends, to a great extent, on the company. If the company is a good risk, only minimum limitations need be set. A poor risk, of course, is different. Its limitations should be greater than those of a stronger company.
Look now for a few moments at the kinds of limitations and restrictions which the lender may set. Knowing what they are can help you see how they affect your operations.
The limitations which you will usually run into when you borrow money are:
(1) Repayment terms.
(2) Pledging or the use of security.
(3) Periodic reporting.
A loan agreement, as you may already know, is a tailor-made document covering, or referring to, all the terms and conditions of the loan. With it, the lender does two things: (1) protects position as a creditor (keeps that position in as protected a state as it was on the date the loan was made) and (2) assures repayment according to the terms.
The lender reasons that the borrower's business should generate enough funds to repay the loan while taking care of other needs. The lender considers that cash inflow should be great enough to do this without hurting the working capital of the borrower.
Covenants--Negative and Positive
The actual restrictions in a loan agreement come under a section known as covenants. Negative covenants are things which the borrower may not do without prior approval from the lender. Some examples are: further additions to the borrower's total debt, non-pledge to others of the borrower's assets, and issuance of dividends in excess of the terms of the loan agreement.
On the other hand, positive covenants spell out things which the borrower must do. Some examples are: (1) maintenance of a minimum net working capital. (2) carrying of adequate insurance, (3) repaying the loan according to the terms of the agreement, and (4) supplying the lender with financial statements and reports.
Overall, however, loan agreements may be amended from time to time and exceptions made. Certain provisions may be waived from one year to the next with the consent of the lender.
You Can Negotiate
Next time you go to borrow money, thrash out the lending terms before you sign. It is good practice no matter how badly you may need the money. Ask to see the papers in advance of the loan closing. Legitimate lenders are glad to cooperate.
Chances are that the lender may "give" some on the terms. Keep in mind also that, while you're mulling over the terms, you may want to get the advice of your associates and outside advisors. In short, try to get terms which you know your company can live with. Remember, however, that once the terms have been agreed upon and the loan is made (or authorized as in the case of SBA), you are bound by them.
The Loan Application
Now you have read about the various aspects of the lending process and are ready to apply for a loan. Banks and other private lending institutions, as well as the Small Business Administration, require a loan application on which you list certain information about your business.
For the purposes of explaining a loan application, this Aid uses the Small Business Administration's application for a loan (SBA Form 4 not included). The SBA form is more detailed than most bank forms. The bank has the advantage of prior knowledge of the applicant and his or her activities. Since SBA does not have such knowledge, its form is more detailed. Moreover, the longer maturities of SBA loans ordinarily will necessitate more knowledge about the applicant.
Before you get to the point of filling out a loan application, you should have talked with an SBA representative, or perhaps your accountant or banker, to make sure that your business is eligible for an SBA loan. Because of public policy, SBA cannot make certain types of loans. Nor can it make loans under certain conditions. For example, if you can get a loan on reasonable terms from a bank, SBA cannot lend you money. The owner-manager is also not eligible for an SBA loan if he or she can get funds by selling assets which his or her company does not need in order to grow.
When the SBA representative gives you a loan application, you will notice that most of its sections ("Application for Loan"--SBA Form 4) are self-explanatory. However, some applicants have trouble with certain sections because they do not know where to go to get the necessary information.
Section 3--"Collateral Offered" is an example. A company's books should show the net value of assets such as business real estate and business machinery and equipment. "Net" means what you paid for such assets less depreciation.
If an owner-manager's records do not contain detailed information on business collateral, such as real estate and machinery and equipment, the bank sometimes can get it from your Federal income tax returns. Reviewing the depreciation which you have taken for tax purposes on such collateral can be helpful in arriving at the value of these assets.
If you are a good manager, you should have your books balanced monthly. However, some businesses prepare balance sheets less regularly. In filling out your "Balance Sheet as of ______ 19 ____, Fiscal Year Ends ________," remember that you must show the condition of your business within 60 days of the date on your loan application. It is best to get expert advice when working up such vital information. Your accountant or banker will be able to help you.
Cash Budget
(For three months, ending March 31, 19___)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
January February March
Budget Actual Budget Actual Budget Actual
--------------------------- ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
Expected Cash Receipts:
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
1. Cash sales
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
2. Collections on accounts
receivable
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
3. Other income
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
4. Total cash receipts
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
Expected Cash Payments
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
5. Raw materials
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
6. Payroll
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
7. Other factory expenses
(including maintenance)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
8. Advertising
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
9. Selling expense
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
10. Administrative expense
(including salary of
owner-manager)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
11. New plant and equipment
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
12. Other payments (taxes,
including estimated
income tax; repayment of
loans; interest; etc.)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
13. Total cash payments
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
14. Expected Cash Balance at
beginning of the month
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
15. Cash increase or decrease
(item 4 minus item 13)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
16. Expected cash balance at
end of month (item 14
plus item 15)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
17. Desired working cash balance
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
18. Short-term loans needed
(item 17 minus item 16, if
item 17 is larger)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
19. Cash available for dividends,
capital cash expenditures,
and/or short investments
(item 16 minus item
17, if item 16 is larger
than item 17)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Capital Cash:
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
20. Cash available (item 19
after deducting dividends,
etc.)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
21. Desired capital cash (item
11, new plant equipment)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
22. Long-term loans needed
(item 21 less item 20, if
item 20 is larger than
item 20)
----------------------------______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Again, if your records do not show the details necessary for working up profit and loss statements, your Federal income tax returns may be useful in getting together facts for the SBA loan application.
Insurance
SBA also needs information about the kinds of insurance a company carries. The owner-manager gives these facts by listing various insurance policies.
Personal Finances
SBA also must know something about the personal financial condition of the applicant. Among the types of information are: personal cash position; source of income including salary and personal investments; stocks, bonds, real estate, and other property owned in the applicant's own name; personal debts including installment credit payments, life insurance premiums, and so forth.
Evaluating the Application
Once you have supplied the necessary information, the next step in the borrowing process is the evaluation of your application. Whether the processing officer is in a bank or in SBA, the officer considers the same kinds of things when determining whether to grant or refuse the loan. The SBA loan processor looks for:
(1) The borrower's debt paying record to suppliers, banks, home mortgage holders, and other creditors.
(2) The ratio of the borrower's debt to net worth.
(3) The past earnings of the company.
(4) The value and condition of the collateral which the borrower offers for security.
The SBA loan processor also looks for: (1) the borrower's management ability, (2) the borrower's character, and (3) the future prospects of the borrower's business.
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